Sir Ernest Shackleton - A charismatic leader in times of changes

CONTENTS

I. Introduction: Wording -Leadership

II. Characteristics of today’s business world and selection of a appropriate leader

III. Shackleton Proposal of Personality
A. Birth and School
B. First Career steps and experiences
C. Endurance expedition – Preparation phase
D. 1914–1916 Endurance Expedition
1. Detailed Planning and contingency plans for nearly every situation
2. Establishment of an outstanding team spirit within the crew

IV. Account: Selection of appropriate theory for Shackleton and the crisis situation
A. Important facts and premises for the applied theory
1. Charismatic Leadership
a) Proposal Charismatic leadership
b) Apply of Charismatic Leadership theory on Shackleton
c) Summary
2. Transformational leadership
a) Proposal Transformational leadership theory
b) Apply of Transformational Leadership on Shackleton
c) Summary

V. Critical review on the charismatic and transformational leadership theory

VI. Conclusion and Outlook

VII. Appendix
1. Bibliographies
a) Books
b) Journal Articles / Newspaper Publications

I. Introduction: Wording -Leadership

The work with leadership contains a common understanding of the term leadership. Personality has existed as a research interest nearly as long as Psychology has existed as a science. In the literature a lot of different approaches and definitions can be found. In the past 60 years, as many as 65 different classification systems have been developed, to define the dimension of leadership^[1]. Burns describes leadership as “one of the most observed and least understood phenomena on earth^[2]. One classification system is proposed by Bass. He defines leader as the center of group processes, in which he change and activity and embodies the will of the group^[3]. Also a dimension often used, describes leadership from a personal perspective. Here the goal is also to conceptualize leadership in a personality perspective. The approach is based on beliefs that leadership is a combination of special traits or characteristics that individuals possess and that enable them to induce other to accomplish tasks^[4]. Also a popular dimension of leadership research tries to define leadership as an act or behavior- things leaders do to bring about change in a group^[5]. In addition leadership has been described as power relationship between leaders and followers^[6]. Other researchers analyze leaders from a skill perspective. This stresses the capabilities, that make effective leaders appear. Finally recent scholars addresses leadership as a transformational process, that moves followers to accomplish more than what is usually expected by them. This approach is influenced by Weber. He calls that “charisma”^[7], which occurs when there is a crisis and a leader offer a ‘radical’ solution to a crisis and attracts followers who believe in this vision. They than experience some successes that make the vision and the followers perceive the leader as extraordinary.

Despite the various dimension and approaches in which leadership has been conceptualized there are main contents which are repetitive. According to Fenton, Leadership has the dimensions “influence, intention, change, followers, personal responsibility, processes and shared purposes”^[8]. Based on those elements the following definition of Rost is used in the following:

“Leadership is an influence relationship among leaders and followers, who intend real changes that reflect their mutual purposes.^[9] ”

II. Characteristics of today’s business world and selection of a appropriate leader

The literature is full of theories and explanations, why and how leader behave in certain situation, and what a perfect leader must have to perform outstanding. With the concepts and the definition it became clearer that leadership appears in groups with the result of changes.

A closer look inside the business world today shows, that a lot of crisis takes place in various companies every day. Inherent with the globalization and the information availability and transparency is also that business cycles become faster and faster. Thereby only companies which are organized and structured very flexible, and are able to adapt themselves on new situations are successful. So the task for a manager is to be prepared on new changing situation, to foresee situations and to solve upcoming crisis successfully. Due to that the following paper is based on a personality and a successful leader of the past: Eric Shackleton. As he was able to master his extreme crisis situations very successful, he is also today a very respected and admired person. Because I am of the opinion, that to learn from theories is more effective by applying them to an existing situation, a short description of Shackleton takes place in order to give and insight in his live and his actions. Thereby special characteristics and actions of Shackletons are pointed out. Based on that, the analytical steps are made.

III. Shackleton Proposal of Personality

A. Birth and School

Shackleton was of English-Irish ancestry and was born 1874 in Ballitore, Ireland, as one of 10 children. He attended Dulwich College where he was far from an exemplary student. But his College time provided him with the confidence and determination to pursue his ambitions as an explorer^[10].

B. First Career steps and experiences

In 1901-1902 Shackleton made his first experience as explorer, when he participated in the National Antarctic Expedition “Discovery Expedition” led by Robert Falcon Scott. On the Antarctic Scott, Wilson and Shackleton trekked south towards the South Pole in 1902. This journey misled 857km away from the South Pole, because of inexperience of the group and inadequate preparation in front. On their trip backwards to the ship Shackleton developed scurvy, so he was forced to give up. During the expedition, Scott disregarded Shackleton’s popularity within the crew^[11]. So back in England Scott used Shackleton’s health as an excuse to remove him. Due to that those two became a kind of rivalries.

From his early experiences and the “bad” managed expedition, Shackleton learned a lot, for his following own expeditions, which he was able to change in his second expedition to the Antarctica, the “Nimrod Expedition (1907–1909)”. His primary goal was to reach the South Pole as the first human. Shackleton, with a small team consistent of Wild, Marshall, and Adams tried to reach the South Pole, but stopped their efforts only 180 km away from the South Pole. Because of the illness of Wild, Shackleton decided with the goal in arms length, to return in order to rescue the life of his man^[12]. While the expedition did not make it to the pole, Shackleton was not only the first human to cross the Trans-Antarctic mountain range, but also the first to set foot on the South Polar Plateau. Back in England he was able to bask in the glory of being "the man who reached furthest to the south." Of his failure to reach the South Pole, Shackleton remarked: "Better a live donkey than a dead lion^[13]."

C. Endurance expedition – Preparation phase

Not satisfied by his success, Shackleton planed immediately after his arrival in England another expedition to the south-pole. With the experience of his last two expeditions it became obvious for Shackleton that he can organize a successful polar expedition only, if he can hire outstanding personal and prepare the expedition very detailed.

Therefore Shackleton announced an advertisement in the newspaper^[14]: "Men wanted for hazardous journey. Small wages. Bitter cold. Long months of winter. Constant danger. Safe return doubtful. Honors and recognition in case of success."

In the followings Shackleton selected his crew in personal interviews. His first hire was for the critical No. 2 position. Shackleton picked an experienced man, from which he knew that he was clever but wasn’t an ideas man and never claimed to be, but which he trusted. Afterwards Shackleton searched for persons which were open-minded and very optimistic, because he believed that those would work best in a team environment. Furthermore he engaged persons who were really enthusiastic about the job and who were willing, apart from their qualification, to take a job of another crew member, if necessary. By doing so, Shackleton searched for personal which could work hard and were all-rounder. Shackleton own opinion towards teams was “all for one, and one for all”. Within his selection process he explicitly explained his ideas, vision and his demands and requirements so that everyone of his crew knew everything about the upcoming expedition. Moreover Shackleton organized very precise and carefully the newest and most modern equipment for his crew and arranged to organize enough food to survive at least 3 years in the Antarctic.

With that preparation he started his Endurance expedition with 28 crew members containing of researchers, seaman and officers, on the Aug. 1st 1914 and sailed from England towards the Antarctica.

D. 1914–1916 Endurance Expedition

The expedition was planned to be an attempt to cross Antarctica from the Weddell Sea south of the Atlantic, to the Ross Sea south of the Pacific, by way of the Pole. He set out from London on August 1914, and reached the Weddell Sea on January 1915, where the pack ice closed in the ship Endurance. Caught in the ice, the crew became nervous. In the following month Shackleton developed two main elements for the success of the expedition:

1. Detailed Planning and contingency plans for nearly every situation

In the time were the ship was closed Shackleton developed intensively plans and solutions for at that time and in that situation surreal problems. He analyzed the situation very rational and made scenarios for the future (how to get food, how to enlarge food reserves, how to keep the clothes try, what first steps have to be undertaken if the ship sinks etc.). Based on them he developed contingency plans which he wrote in his diary. Moreover he trained his crew in rescue plans and held maneuvers to learn the right behaviors and steps.

2. Establishment of an outstanding team spirit within the crew

Besides that Shackleton believed that the upcoming challenges will only be able to be managed with a strong culture and affiliation with in the crew. Therefore he introduced a few rules:

- He informed the crew openly about changes and challenges and was always available for everyone.
- He had regular conversations with every crew member and informed himself about them and their problems and offered help when ever it was possible^[15]. Furthermore he gave feedback and offered for the crew members also the possibility to give him a Feedback.
- He established routines like cleaning etc. to secure a productive environment and to give the crew tasks in order to show their importance and to dispel possible doubts or upcoming boringness^[16].
- To overcome the traditional hierarchies on a ship he forced everyone apart from his rank to contribute individual to the success by doing every work which need to be done.
- He changed task and work on a rotational basis so that every crew member had to work with everyone at the ship^[17], to eliminate differences between the crew members.
- He tried to treat everyone equal^[18] (food ration, attention ration etc) and set a good example by involving himself in every rule he set up.
- Entertainment and relaxing phases were installed as a central function in the schedule of the crew. Thereby everyone had to contribute with a sketch, a poem or song to entertain the crew^[19]. Later on this tradition appeared to be a central element in the following tortures.

The ship Endurance was broken by the ice on 27 October 1915. Because of the practical experience the crew managed to rescue themselves on an ice floe. In the following days the crew realized, that they lie under a sentence of death, and that, if they want to survive had to face tremendous challenges. The moral was down and demoralization within the crew took place. In that situation Shackleton held a speech to his group, in which he left no doubt that he himself, takes the full responsibility for the situation but would lead them out of the crisis if they would stick together and would trust him till the end. Furthermore he explained in detail in general understandable words, very realistic the current situation and his contingency plan and his alternatives^[20]. He than thanked every individual person for his efforts so far and asked him for support. Years after the rescue the crew spoke of an incredible speech in which Shackleton seemed to be very strong and confident^[21]. All crew members pledge Shackleton loyalty. Direct after that Shackleton invited all to have dinner, in which the best food was served. In the following Shackleton reorganized his crew and reduced hierarchies. He built teams for the sleeping berth in four tends. Thereby he carefully looked, at a balance of personality, experience, attitude and optimists in every “tend”. The most pessimists of the crew he took with him in his tend and tried to observe and to convince them from his vision.

[...]

^[1] Cp. Page 245ff, Fleishman et al, 1991, Taxonomic efforts in the desciption of leader behaviour

^[2] Cp. Page 2 ,J. MacGreogor Burns, “Leadership”, 1978

^[3] Cp. Page 11ff, Bass, B.M, Bass and Stockdill´s handbook of leadership, 1990

^[4] Cp. Page 16, Northouse, Leadership, Theory and Practice, 2007

^[5] Cp. Page 17, Northouse, Leadership, Theory and Practice, 2007

^[6] Cp. Page 607-623, French& Raven, The bases of social power, 1960

^[7] Cp. Page 46f, Max Weber, Johannes Winckelmann, Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft, Grundriß der Verstehenden Soziologie,1922

^[8] Cp. Page 113ff. John Fenton, “101 Ways to Boost Your Business Performance”, 1990

^[9] Cp. Page 12, Rost, Leadership for the 21st century, 1991

^[10] Cp. Page 39ff, Morrell,M; Capparell, S.,Shackletons Führungskunst, 2003

^[11] Cp. Page 57f, Morrell,M; Capparell, S.,Shackletons Führungskunst, 2003

^[12] Cp. Letter Page 69ff, Morrell,M; Capparell, S.,Shackletons Führungskunst, 2003

^[13] Cp. Page 86f, Morrell,M; Capparell, S.,Shackletons Führungskunst, 2003

^[14] Cp. 70, Morrell,M; Capparell, S.,Shackletons Führungskunst, 2003

^[15] Cp. Page 127 f. Morrell,M; Capparell, S.,Shackletons Führungskunst, 2003

^[16] Cp. Page 130f; 145ff and 162, Morrell,M; Capparell, S.,Shackletons Führungskunst, 2003

^[17] Cp. Page 134ff, Morrell,M; Capparell, S.,Shackletons Führungskunst, 2003

^[18] Cp. Page 136, 141f, Morrell,M; Capparell, S.,Shackletons Führungskunst, 2003

^[19] Cp. Page 139, Morrell,M; Capparell, S.,Shackletons Führungskunst, 2003

^[20] Cp. Page 189,Morrell,M; Capparell, S.,Shackletons Führungskunst, 2003

^[21] Cp. Page 190f,Morrell,M; Capparell, S.,Shackletons Führungskunst, 2003