Land Usage Management in Informal Settlements in Kumasi, Ghana. A Case Study of Asawase Township

Index

ABSTRACT

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 General Introduction
1.2 Problem Statement
1.3 Research Questions
1.4 Research Objectives
1.5 Brief Research Methodology
1.6 Organization of Study
1.7 Significance of the study

CHAPTER TWO
CONCEPT OF INFORMAL SETTLEMENTS
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Definition of Informal settlements
2.3 History of Informal settlements
2.4 Types of Informal settlements
2.4.1 Squatter Settlements
2.4.2 Illegal Subdivision
2.4.3 Substandard inner-housing
2.4.4 Settlement for vulnerable groups of refugees
2.4.5 Types of informal settlements in Ghana
2.5 Causes and Effects of Informal settlements
2.5.1 Causes of Informal settlements
2.5.2 Effects of Informal settlements
2.6 Addressing the Informal settlements
2.6.1 Laissez-faire approach
2.6.2 Upgrading Strategies
2.6.3 Urban land management and tenure
2.7 Institution responsible for management of land in Ghana
2.7.1 Municipal, Metropolitan and District Assemblies (MMDAs)
2.7.2 Land Registration Division
2.7.3 Land Commission (LC)
2.7.4 Town and Country Planning Department (TCPD)
2.8 Legal Framework of Land Administration in Ghana
2.8.1 Town and Country Planning Ordinance 1945
2.8.2 State Lands Act 1962(Act 125)
2.8.3 Lands Commission Act, 2008 (Act 767)
2.8.4 Building Regulations LI 1630
2.9 Summary of Lesson Learnt

CHAPTER THREE
PROFILE OF STUDY AREA AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Profile of Kumasi Metropolis
3.2.1 History of study Area
3.2.2 Location and Size
3.2.3 Population
3.2.4 Administration and Governance
3.2.5 Asawase in Context
3.3 Research Design
3.4 Categories of Data
3.5 Selection of Study Area
3.6 Sampling Technique
3.6. 1 Sample Frame and Sample Size Determination
3.7 Data Analysis and Presentation
3.8 Summary

CHAPTER FOUR
PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL DATA
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Characteristics of Respondents
4.2.1 Ethnic Composition
4.2.2 Migration Study
4.2.3 Educational Status and Background
4.2.4 Employment Status
4.3 Housing Conditions and Physical Characteristics
4.3.1 Drainage Patterns
4.3.2 Housing
4.4 Land Operations
4.4.1 Security of tenure
4.4.2 Land Ownership and Land Use
4.4.3 Building/Development Permit Acquisition Process
4.5 Land Management Practices and Challenges
4.5.1 Land Registration.
4.5.2 Conformation of Physical Development to Plans
4.5.3 Adhering to planning rules and regulations
4.5.4 Land Dispute Resolution
4.5.5 Land Management Challenges
4.6 Chapter Summary

CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY OF FINIDINGS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Summary of Findings
5.3 Recommendations
5.4 Conclusion

REFERENCES

ABSTRACT

The high rate of urbanization and fast growing population of cities have impacted on land management. The main objective of this study that focused on Asawase being the first estate that was built in Kumasi was to know how land is managed in informal settlements. The study analyzed how land can be effectively managed in Asawase, challenges of land management and also the legal and institutional arrangements backing management of land and to come out with recommendation on how land can be managed effectively in Kumasi. The study employed the cross sectional research design in which the case study method was used. The research made use of the participatory approach in order to have diverse views on the research topic .The research adopted the use of questionnaires and interviews to collect data from slum dwellers and institutions in charge of managing land within Asawase such as Town and Country Planning Department (TCPD), Lands Commission(LC), Asokore Mampong Municipal Assembly (AMMA).

From the study, it was observed that, the conditions in Asawase had deteriorated considerably leading to poor sanitation, substandard of housing, lack of basic services and facilities and low generating income activities. It was further established that, the institutions in charge of managing land face a lot of challenges in undertaking their duties, some of the challenges are, political influence, delay in the release of funds, failure in reviewing plans and inadequate logistics, land litigation and disputes were also major challenges in the managing of land in Asawase.

Efficient land administration in urban areas could promote development of communities and enhance socioeconomic growth. Lastly, human resource and logistics should be adequate to make land service delivery efficient and make clients comfortable in their transactions with the institutions.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 General Introduction

Land is a basic natural resource on which man depends for survival. However, according to Verheye (1997), population density of the world has increased due to factors such as unplanned settlements, improper management and high population pressure on the previously reserved lands. Nonetheless, developing countries have a characteristic whereby land located in urban areas is occupied by the poor or the disadvantaged. Aluko and Amidu (2006) buttress this assertion that between 20 and 80 percent of urban dwellings in developing countries is occupied by the poor or low income earners.

A settlement is a general term used in landscape, history and planning where permanent or temporary community is provided for the people within a specific locality which ranges from size, importance and population.

A settlement can be either formal or informal, where formal settlement is an urban area that is complex and interrelated with others which have access to basic services, infrastructure and mostly having good quality housing and their physical surroundings are very congenial for living purposes (UN-HABITAT).

According to United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-HABITAT), an informal settlement or a slum as a contiguous settlement where the inhabitants are characterized as having insecure residential status, poor structural quality of housing, inadequate access to sanitation and other basic infrastructure.

Population pressure in Africa emerges not only from procreation but also from urbanization. African governments live in cities and, not surprisingly, their policies favour the cities, hence causes the enlargement of the urban populations and city sizes in Africa (Timberlake, 1991). Rapid urbanization in Africa is intertwined with certain peculiar problems. Carter (1981) outlined the problems of urbanization as alienation, traffic congestion, pollution, vulnerability and slum growth or informal settlements. According to Srivinas ad Todaro, Informal settlements (also referred to as a shanty town or squatter settlement) is explained as residential buildings built on “planned” and “unplanned” areas which do not have formal planning approval. Hence, they are characterized mostly by the low quality houses and the lack of, or inadequate infrastructure and social services. Informal settlements has been perceived both as a problem and solution to housing needs in speedily growing cities of many developing countries.

Currently, it is estimated that more than 50% of Ghana’s population of over 24 million now live in urban areas (GSS 2010). According to UN Habitat (2008), this is up from 8% in 1921; 12.8% in 1948; 23.1% in 1960 and 43.8% in 2000. The four (4) most urbanized cities alone in Ghana, out of a total of 364 urban centres in 2000 account for over 50% of the total national urban population (NDPC, 2005). As a result of rapid urbanization coupled with increasing population growth rate, there is increase in demand for land for developments. The value of land therefore continues to rise, the urban poor who happens to be the majority of the urban population therefore find it difficult to acquire land legally, and they rely on how to get access to urban land illegally and try to put up some structure needed for their survival.

There is an urgent need for efficient management of land in the face of an ever-increasing population and the growing demands in all activities based on land (Gyasi et al., 2006).

Land management is defined as the process of controlling the use and development of land resources in a sustainable way (Karikari, 2006). Urban land management is therefore the act of controlling and organizing land usage in urban areas to bring about socio-economic development. For the purpose of this study, land management is explained as the process of managing the use and development (in urban settings) of land resources. Informal settlements cover issues such as illegal occupation of lands, houses built on lands not intended for that purpose, housing that do not have planning permission and houses that do not conform to the laid down building regulations of an area (UN Habitat, 2003; Fekade, 2000).

The implications of this trend on the planning and the management of land in the cities include among other things the difficulty in the enforcement of planning regulations in the cities to ensure orderly development. Again, the situation creates real difficulty for resource mobilization and distribution in the cities. This research therefore is an attempt to manage informal settlements in the urban areas of Ghana taking Asawase as the study area.

1.2 Problem Statement

Since the 1950s, the number of urban population living in informal settlements has continued to grow in the cities of developing countries (UN-Habitat 2003), these informal settlements have become serious problems to the Local and Metropolitan Authorities of the city and developing countries. For instance, the UN-Habitat in 2003 stated that 99.4% of urban dwellers in Ethiopia, 99.1% of urban dwellers in Chad and 98.5% of urban dwellers in Afghanistan were informal dwellers. (Carr, 1987), Nearly 5.35 million Ghanaians, which is about 37.9 percent of Ghana’s total urban population live in slums, according to United Nation statistics. It is not surprising therefore that a recent survey conducted by the UN-Habitat in 2006 indicated that between 40 and 70% of urban dwellers in developing countries live in slums. This poses serious challenge to city authorities and managers in developing countries. The report by the UN Economic Commission for Africa (ECA) noted that there are signs that Ghanaian cities are facing challenges with land use, infrastructure, housing, sanitation and transportation. This is due to the high rate of people living in informal settlements and the pressure they put on social amenities.

Urban land management is therefore faced with the problem of informal settlements, in the form of encroachments of public lands and floodable areas and development of unapproved portions on the land. Users of land are less controlled. Laxity of existing laws makes people build unauthorized structures which block water ways and sometimes cause flooding in urban centres. Cumbersome processes involved in land titling and registration contributes to haphazard development on the urban land. It also takes long time for building permits to be issued for newly acquired land. Appointed approving planning committees do not meet regularly. Lengthy processing durations and high cost in the Land sector urgencies deter developers from looking for the right ownership of land and to apply for permits.

Considering the weak institutional and regulatory framework in the management of land, migrants settle for a long time without being noticed by the City Authorities, and they multiply in number until their existence begins to pose social and developmental challenges to the city and its inhabitants and the nation as a whole, the problem here is that as developers submit their application for permits it takes much time than the necessary three(3) months requirement which makes people develop any how because their permit has delayed which distort the appropriate layout scheme of the city.

Slum growth has therefore become a problem which affects all and therefore needs urgent attention, since it has implications on the planning and management of our cities (Adarkwa and Post, 2001).

Moreover, urbanization is also a contributing factor to illegal settlement formation. This is because the rural-urban migrants do not have the resources to acquire land for shelter in the cities. They therefore make use of the marginal or less valuable urban lands such as riverbanks, steep slopes, dumping grounds, abandoned or unexploited plots, near industrial areas and market places, low lying areas, wet lands, among others. These sites normally do not cost the slum dwellers anything and they are able to secure them almost immediately as they arrive in the city. The implication of the foregoing is the growth of slums in the cities. In addition, the proliferation of slums, associated with the lack of security of tenure is changing not only the urban form and structure but also, more importantly, is aggravating poverty, housing problems, inequality and social exclusion in most cities of developing countries.

This is the problem which the study seeks to investigate, on how these slums or informal settlements can be managed, taking Kumasi, a major city with some manifestations of slum, specifically Asawase as a case study.

1.3 Research Questions

The study will address the following research questions:

1. How do developers access land?
2. How are informal settlements formed or developed?
3. What influences people to live in informal settlements?
4. What is the relevance of land management in informal settlements?
5. What effects does informal settlements pose to land in urban centres?
6. What are the challenges of land management in Kumasi?

1.4 Research Objectives

The ultimate aim of this study is to study mechanism and know how land is managed in informal settlements in Kumasi and its effects on development. However, the following sub objectives will be met in order to achieve the specific objective.

1. To identify the owners of the land within the informal settlements.
2. To identify the adverse effects informal settlements pose to lands in urban centres, precisely within the confines of the Kumasi metropolis.
3. To unearth the challenges of land management in Kumasi.
4. Explore the factors that have influenced residents to live in informal settlements.
5. To identify stakeholders and the principal roles they play in land management in Kumasi.
6. To identify the relevance of land management within informal settlements in the Kumasi metropolis.

1.5 Brief Research Methodology

The case study was adopted for this research study, it focused on a particular areas of interest, thoroughly consider issues of land management in informal settlements in Kumasi and report on it. The research is metropolitan based study which focuses the land management of informal settlements in Kumasi Metropolis, it shows the various design instruments for data such as questionnaires, interviews and the rest Major sampling methods that were used in undertaking this study are probability and non-probability where the non-probability will take into consideration institutions within the Metropolis that manage land such as the Lands Commission, Stools Lands etc. and also probability technique will be used in selecting informal settlements dwellers in Asawase.

The approach for the study includes; review of important literature on land management in informal settlements, which institutions are involved in management of land, sampling for study, design and administration of data collection instruments (socio-economic and environmental data) and analysis of data collected

1.6 Organization of Study

The study is organized into five chapters with various sub-titles. Chapter one deals with the general introduction of the study that is providing the necessary information of the study which covers the research background where the research questions which seek to be answered in order to achieve the research objectives, brief methodology of the research, organization of the study and the significance of the study.

The chapter two provides the necessary information on literature review and the needed framework that was applied in the research. The third chapter of the research dwells on the detailed background of the study area Asawase in Kumasi and the research methodology adopted for the study. The methodology covers data collection design instruments, sources of data, how the data are collected and the final presentation of the data.

Chapter four presents the socio- economic and physical survey data and analysis of the data using the appropriate tools and techniques. The final chapter, chapter five highlights and presents the summary of the major findings of the research, recommendations and concluding remarks.

1.7 Significance of the study

Effective land management is paramount to urban development due to the influence land has on the socio-economic development and urban environment. This study will help individuals, land users, institutions and the government to get information on the current state of land administration in Kumasi.

The study is informed by the development of unauthorised structures which has become a problem in sub-urban Kumasi, and in Ghana as a whole. The study, it is hoped, will make people aware of the existence of institutional arrangements for land management, and of the various challenges that have hindered land management and planning institutions and agencies from performing satisfactorily in Kumasi and elsewhere in the country. It is also envisaged that the study will help to unravel the factors that have influenced peoples’ mind to frown upon planning regulations, and which have urged them to put up unauthorised structures in urban areas of Ghana. Problems facing residents as a result of unauthorised structures, the level of awareness, and perceptions of the inhabitants at Asawase of land management principles will also be known.

These will help city managers, planning authorities and policy makers to make informed decisions to curtail the springing up of unauthorised structures at Asawase and elsewhere in Ghana. In addition, the findings from the study, is hoped, will add to the existing knowledge the management of urban lands and also serve as a basis for further research into issues concerning unauthorised structures especially in urban areas in Ghana.

CHAPTER TWO

CONCEPT OF INFORMAL SETTLEMENTS

2.1 Introduction

This chapter reviews some studies that have been done on the topic as well what others have said and written about which relevant to this particular study. It highlights on some ideas such as history of development of informal settlements, the concept of informal settlements, types of informal settlements, and causes and effects of informal settlements in urban areas. The chapter also presents some aspects on how land is managed in informal settlements as well as, institutional and legal arrangements for managing of land in Ghana.

2.2 Definition of Informal settlements

There are various definition of informal settlements. Cities Alliance Action Plan describes informal settlements as neglected part of the urban cities where living and housing conditions are actually poor, and it ranges from high density, central city tenements to spontaneous squatter settlements without any legal backing. (Cities Alliance 1999). According to the definition by the Cities Alliance Action Plan certain elements were outlined which are, high density which means an area with a high rate of housing where the total number of residential area does not conform with the existing land space required for, high densities can be defined is short terms as a place which has more buildings over a very small land space.

The living and housing conditions are also elements in the definition by the Cities Alliance Action Plan, this gives a fair idea on how informal settlements are, in this case the nature of the physical environment is very bad ranging from low substandard of housing, deteriorated and unauthorized housing units and also the lacking of social services by the dwellers of the area.

According to Srivinas (2005), and Todaro (1994), Informal settlements (also referred to as a shanty town or squatter settlement) is residential buildings built on “planned” and “unplanned” areas which do not have formal planning approval. Hence, they are characterized mostly by the low quality houses and the lack of, or inadequate infrastructure and social services The Global Development Research Centre (2003) defined an informal settlements or slum as a highly congested urban area marked by deteriorated, insanitary buildings, poverty and social disorganization, its inhabitants do not necessarily have to be low or middle-income earners.

According to the UN HABITAT slum is a contiguous settlements where the inhabitants are characterized by having inadequate housing units and basic services. A slum is mostly not recognized by public authorities as an integral part of the urban city Different names are mostly given to informal settlements based on their form of development. For example some are termed as spontaneous settlement because it developed due to the lack of central or local government finances and proper development control and also uncontrolled settlement is given to some informal settlements when it lacks proper registration and conformance to regulation. (UN HABITAT 1987).

Devadas and Desai (1990) argue that a slum area may not necessarily be an area that all land, buildings or improvements in a settlement but may constitute a specific area in the settlement where such features predominate and may affect the entire settlement and cause a major impact on the environment.

According to the United Nation Economic for Europe (UNECE) informal settlements is any human settlement where housing has been constructed without the requisite legal title for ownership of land that is used for residential purposes.

When we talk about informal settlements certain words come into mind such as “slums”, “squatters” and most at times “ghettos”. Slum is termed as highly congested urban area which are marked by unauthorized, deteriorated and insanitary buildings, poverty and disorganization. (Global Development Research Centre 2003).Authorized building is termed as building without any proper plan or measure which is illegal settling or illegal acquisition of land, deteriorated and insanitary building are mostly buildings which are not in appropriate conditions for shelter.

In summary, there are certain features or characteristics of informal settlements which are as follows

- Lack of basic services
- Poverty and social exclusion
- Low substandard of housing
- Overcrowding and high density

These features convey a lot of negativity on the environment and also an avenue for social vices.

From the above therefore, informal settlements or slums can be defined as an urban area or part of an urban settlement that lack access to basic services, highly dense and overcrowded with low substandard of housing and are mostly not backed by planning regulations or laws.

2.3 History of Informal settlements

According to UN HABITAT 2003, ever since there have been cities, poor neighbourhoods have existed, but it was not until the 1820s that the notion of the informal settlements was established. This was probably because the conditions improved and it was possible to distinguish informal settlements from other parts. The formation of slum began in the early 19th Century where Great Britain was a big slum before it became a colonial power, it was a society where the lords were living in their castles and big palaces whiles the majority of the people were living in great squalors. Slums were almost everywhere in Great Britain with London having the biggest slums. (Sud, 2006).

In many developing countries, the emergence of unauthorized structures dates back to the 1940s. In the United States of America (USA), states like New York and Boston had a large number of slums around the 20th Century as a result of many immigrants from other part of the world mainly from Mexico and Africa. As a result of many slums in the United States the word “ghetto” was coined (Sud, 2006).

Informal settlements in developed countries dated back during the industrialization period where fast urbanization housing was needed. The early stages of capitalism change urban planning tradition to less focus on open space and common grounds. During the Industrial Revolution advanced transportation was made possible in order for the rich to separate themselves from the poor. These spatial structures persists. Informal settlements were the only option of housing for poor people in cities, where the competition for land was high (UN HABITAT).

2.4 Types of Informal settlements

There are many classifications of informal settlements according to different authors and scholars, United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) in 2009 came out with broad classification of informal settlements and these include;

2.4.1 Squatter Settlements

They are human settlements in urban areas that are built by individuals or group of people who have illegal possession of an area of land and have built their structures using their self-help approaches. These mostly result from the rapid urbanization in developing countries and also the high rate of rural- urban migration. They are mostly found at the peripheral of the urban centres, a typical squatter settlements lack good water and sanitation, have low standard of housing within the settlement and sometimes face serious risks when terrain is insecure. Squatter settlements are sometimes called “shantytowns” because of their poor quality of construction of buildings

2.4.2 Illegal Subdivision

This sort of informal settlements where the land has been subdivided, rented or resold by its legal owner to people to build on it. It is normally based on unapproved land without the necessary requirement such as building permits. Individuals may have title to the land and the nature of the settlement is not essentially poor. These settlements are illegal because they abuse land use planning, have low standard of services, breach land zoning and mostly it does not meet the building regulation standard.

2.4.3 Substandard inner-housing

In respect of the report of the United Nation Economic for Europe (UNECE) in 2009, this form of informal settlements is termed as part of the urban area which mostly have dilapidated housing units, overcrowded and highly densely populated .The area was developed and planned but has lost its uniqueness and attractiveness due to high influx of low income people into the area. Security of tenure is mostly not the problem but the quality of the housing units and the lack of access to basic services and infrastructure is the concern.

2.4.4 Settlement for vulnerable groups of refugees

This is a form of informal settlements which usually emerges with the authority from the government as a temporary or permanent responses to crisis, it is mostly found within the urban centres, pockets of marginal land or close to refugee’s camp. The living condition of these kind of settlements are very poor and face significant obstacles which prevent the dwellers to return home or from achieving local integration. They often earn de facto legality. In some cases government provide some facilities and the residences could evolve into viable rental and home ownership.

2.4.5 Types of informal settlements in Ghana

As the various types of informal settlements exist anywhere for the uniqueness of the research, the types of slums in Ghana will also be identified, these informal settlements are the Indigenous Communities, Newly Emerging Squatter Community and the Migrant Community popularly referred to as “Zongo”. The table below shows the various characteristics and the types of slums in Ghana

Table 2.1 Types of Informal settlements in Ghana

Abbildung in dieser Leseprobe nicht enthalten

Source: Slum Development in Ghana: Afrane, 2010.

From the table above various inclusion can be drawn from it because indigenous communities have traditional form of housing with good access to infrastructure but they are without permits which makes it informal, the other type of informal settlements which is migrant community (Zongo community), dwellers in these locality have lands released to them by owners of the land but put up infrastructure which are not all that durable and the last group which is the Newly Emerging Squatters who for all intents and purposes have no title to the land they possess. The second and third groups contribute enormously to fast development of informal settlements in Ghana.

2.5 Causes and Effects of Informal settlements

In the previous years there have been many thoughts about what influence the formation of informal settlements and the negative impacts they bring on the environment and the society a whole. There are different school of thought which talks about and causes and the effects of informal settlements. UN HABITAT in 2003 indicated that there are various causes and effects of informal settlements.

2.5.1 Causes of Informal settlements

This talks about overall framework of what brings about the formation of informal settlements within a locality, United Nation (UN) in 2007 brought up the main causes for the formation or the emergence of informal settlements to be political and social-economic functions which mostly lead to rapid rural-urban migration and urbanization. Institutional, physical and cultural factors also influenced the growth of informal settlements in urban centers.

2.5.1.1 Socio-Economic Factors

These factors account for the formation of slums in urban areas, According to Sietchiping Framework in 2000 indicated that there are many informal settlements in most urban areas in developing countries due to the high rent charges and high cost of land in urban centers, and also urban poverty and unemployment. It is observed in Ghana, that informal settlements result in high cost of housing units, bad institutional framework for registration of land and the high rate of rural-urban migration. Majority of disadvantaged people living in developing countries perceive urban area as places to improve their quality of life, better access to jobs, better education and proper health care so they make the urban center as “destination of choice”. This situation has generated a considerable flow of migrants to cities to better their life and they end up putting informal structures which constitute a slum. (Nawagamuwa & Viking, 2003).

The urban poor seek for shelter which is a basic need but is not having enough resources to pay for their rent so they tend to resort to their own form of housing units such as kiosk and other wooden structures on any piece of land they find. This is what pertains in large areas of Asawase in Kumasi.

2.5.1.2 Political Factors

United Nations in 2007 indicated that slum or informal settlements can be caused by certain political factors such as political instability and poor housing policy to provide housing service to the low and the middle income earners also lead to the formation of informal settlements. Kombe and Kreibich (2000) noted that in Tanzania, the failure of government to react to the housing need of the urban poor, encouraged the poor to find their own way of putting up housing units which is substandard and this has given rise to many informal settlements in Tanzania cities.

The UN-Habitat (2003) report shows that lack of political power by the government to implement policies which aim at stopping the growth of informal settlements is a contributory factor to the growth of such structures(Warah,2003).

2.5.1.3 Institutional Factors

The institutional framework backing the implementation of land and housing units are complex and not effectively functional because there is excessive bureaucracy and complex legislation in issuing land development and building permits, also the corruption of some official also influence the formation of informal settlements.(UN,2007). It is also observed that poor policy implementation, outdated laws and inadequate capacity of the authorities to give satisfactory land arrangements are among the components that prompt the formation of informal settlements. Magigi and Majani (2006). Ali and Sulaiman (2006) also linked the high growth of informal settlements in Tanzania (Zanzibar) to lack of qualified urban planners and to the lower level of power by the planning authorities.

2.5.1.4 Physical Factors

Location and physical features of land in urban areas and towns also influence the formation of slums, as people move into the urban center they prefer living in the center or advantageous areas in order to get access to facilities such as health, water, food etc. very easily and also easy access to their place of work. As people move to the center of these urban areas prices of housing units are really high because of the facilities they will enjoy in the area, the urban poor finding it difficult to get the high rented residential units seek to erect their own housing within the center in order to also enjoy these facilities. People also prefer living on marginal land which are mostly neglected by city authorities, hence this lead to the formation of these settlements in the city centre and other strategic areas in the urban environment. According to Sietchiping (2000) this is why informal settlements occur on cheap, vulnerable urban areas because of the low level of income of slum dwellers to afford high cost of housing in a serene environment.

2.5.2 Effects of Informal settlements

The sprawling of inadequately controlled settlement advancements has brought about numerous natural and wellbeing related issues, uncontrolled settlement development is bringing on physical disorder, uneconomical land use, and excessive encroachment of settlements into good agricultural lands as well as, environmental degradation and pollution risk (Cole 1995). Informal settlements popularly referred to as slums pose negative impacts on the environment either positive or negative, this session will talk about the negative effect on the environment and the society as a whole. The most common effects of informal settlements include the following.

2.5.2.1 Pressure on limited city’s facilities

As people move into the urban areas to seek for greener pastures they tend to put up their own form of housing unit because of the high rent of housing around advantageous areas because of the facilities in these areas. Sooner than later the facilities and services within these areas are over-stretched and become inadequate to serve the increased population due to the in-migration of rural poor to these areas.

2.5.2.2 Flooding

The continuous construction of haphazard houses in water ways block many natural water ways leading to the frequent floods during the rainy seasons particularly in the months of June and July of every year. Soil erosion and landslides are strongly related to flooding which destroy houses as well as footpaths and unpaved roads (Ameyibor et al 2003). A high housing density, which most of the informal settlements are characterized with, makes natural seepage of storm water more difficult due to a high share of sealed land (ibid: p24).

A typical example is what happened in Asawase, the case study area in May 2016. The place was flooded due to the high blockages of water ways by authorized structures. Due to the non-existence of drainage systems, storm water creates big puddles that become breeding places for mosquitoes. All these are factors for flooding in informal settlements and thus needs to be looked at critically for lasting solution to the problem.

2.5.2.3 Pollution

One major problem faced by slum dwellers is the lack of proper waste management systems, due to the lack of established collection points, leading to piles of garbage scattered within and around the area which create the health and environmental problems.

As no centralized sewage system is available, liquid waste especially domestic waste and other industrial waste are also discharged haphazardly onsite. This practice create unsightly scene in the environment and also pollutes the groundwater and other water bodies around.

In general, as informal settlements are characterized by substandard housing, the beauty of the entire environment is distorted and the social fabric of the area is impaired as people see slum areas as breeding grounds for crime and social vices.

2.6 Addressing the Informal settlements

Throughout the years various strategies have been advanced to address the socio-economic, physical and the health wellbeing of informal settlements in many countries. A number of approaches to address the informal settlements and these include the following

2.6.1 Laissez-faire approach

This approach started in the early 1950s to the late 1960s where authorities in charge of urban areas chose not to see to informal settlements but focused on provision of public housing (Farvacque& McAuslan, 1992; Rakodi, 2001). It was mainly a strategy of addressing informal settlements in order to manage the use and development of land. The authorities in charge of land made developers of land made their form of choices and decision in the development of land with a specific locality.

Many urban dwellers especially the new migrants in the category of low-income earners were able to afford such form of shelter in marginal and unsuitable open spaces around the various formal settlements .In fact, some policy-makers and urban planners regarded the existing slums as temporary situation, and hence a minor threat to long-term urban development. The perceived “low-income” shelter strategy was to develop public housing projects.

The public housing schemes were implemented in a discriminatory fashion, largely because the indigenous political rulers, who replaced colonial administrators, perpetuated the existing social and class divisions of the previous “master” (Fanon, 1963). In fact, the main beneficiaries of formal public and planned housing schemes were civil servants, and the middle and upper-income earners (Fekade, 2000). Moreover, nepotism, corrupt practices, poor governance and incompetence significantly and rapidly contributed to the expansion of slums, and widened the gap between those who were in positions of power or had some sort of connections” and the rest of the urban population who had nothing to fall on(Global Urban Observatory, 2003). Thus, it appears that between 1950 and 1960, most urban authorities in developing countries adopted a laissez-faire attitude towards the management of growing informal settlements (slums).

2.6.2 Upgrading Strategies

Upgrading is an urban renewal approach or strategy which comprises of physical, socio economic, organizational and environmental improvement for slum dwellers to manage their lands and the use of resources within slums. It is undertaken locally among citizens, organizations, community groups and the local authority itself. The main objective of this approach in addressing informal settlements is to alleviate the poor living standards of slum dwellers. Many slums lack basic community facilities such as provision of safe drinking water, sanitation, wastewater and solid waste management. In the 1980s, the Upgrading Strategies emphasized the improvement of communal infrastructure and services within established slums in several developing countries (Banes, Huque & Zipperer, 2000).

According to UN Habitat upgrading of informal settlements better housing and slum upgrading will contribute to reducing social inequalities and also improving urban safety through their social, spatial impacts and also managed the use of land. Indeed, smart and productive cities of the future will be those in which slums are turned into vibrant neighbourhood that are fully integrated into the city’s fabric and urban management systems, rather than remaining as vast islands of informality, social exclusion, poor housing and underdevelopment. Physical upgrading of slums with street networks and improved infrastructure makes social and economic sense. Socially, upgraded slums improve the physical living conditions, quality of life, and access to services and opportunities in cities. Despite these specific successes, the Upgrading Programmes devoid of economic security for the beneficiaries makes the exercise unsustainable and eventually fail. Amis (2001) has indicated that the Upgrading Programmes in India for example, produced negative socio-economic impacts because it had no solution to poverty reduction, or to problems related to unemployment and land security.

2.6.3 Urban land management and tenure

The World Bank in 1993 indicated that one of the major ways in which urban planning strategies in developing countries have been employed to improve slums and the use of land has been the development of practical mechanisms to consolidate and secure land tenure. Approaches to tenure, land management and titling issues reflect the ongoing debate on property rights. For UN Habitat, adequate shelter for all requires the provision of legal security of tenure for all people, as well as transparent, comprehensive and accessible systems for transferring land rights.

This policy advocated that, legal, administrative, economic, political, urban stakeholders and financial institutions should facilitate and secure shelter and tenure for the most vulnerable sections of urban dwellers. This approach takes into consideration the people and the system of which they operates by including their right to housing and how their development and use of land is managed. In the 1990s, the Enabling Approach under land management and tenure was implemented through security of tenure strategies largely supported by international agencies especially the UN-Habitat and the World Bank as a contingent measure to limit the eviction and demolition threat in slums (Jenkins, 2001). Finally urban land management and tenure emphasized that once residents have the sense of appropriation, they also have the confidence, motivation and will to invest, upgrade or improve their environment in order to manage the use of land.

In conclusion, addressing informal settlements programmes should aim at improving all aspects of the dwellings; from infrastructure provision, improvement in income generating activities and improvement in the housing structures and the environment itself.

2.7 Institution responsible for management of land in Ghana

According to Kasanga and Kotey (2001) the institutions that are responsible for the management and administration of lands in Ghana include, District Assembly (DA), Town and Country Planning Department (TCPD), Land Commission now (Public and Vested Land Division), Land Valuation Board (now Land Valuation Division), Land Registration Division, Office of the Administrators of Stool Lands, and the Survey and Mapping Division. These institutions have their own enabling enactment and their state institution roles are based on the assumption that the state is best placed to see that there is fair and efficient administration of public and vested lands.

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