Corruption and Nigeria's External Image, 1999-2007


Bachelor Thesis, 2019

47 Pages, Grade: 3.0


Excerpt


Table of Content

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER TWO: FRAMEWORK FOR ANALYSIS

CHAPTER THREE: CONCEPTUALISING CORRUPTION AND EXTERNAL IMAGE

CHAPTER FOUR: CORRUPTION AND NIGERIA’S EXTERNAL IMAGE, 1999-2007

CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, FINDINGS AND CONCLUSION

BIBLIOGRAPHY

DEDICATION

This study is dedicated to the innocent citizens that are home and abroad who have been maltreated because of the negative reputation that corruption has given Nigeria and to my ever wonderful guardians/parents, Prophet and Mrs. Iyiola Folorunso Faleye for their immense support, encouragement and prayers, the important roles you have played in my life shall forever be appreciated. Also to my Late father, Mr. Joseph Titilayo Abiola and Maami, Mrs. Victoria Ijaduola Abiola.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

My genuine and sincere gratitude goes to my wonderful supervisor, lecturer and academic mentor, Dr. Iwebunor Okwechime whose valuable time, enormous wealth of knowledge and experience offered guidance for the realization of this study. His depth of intolerance for laziness, diligence, and undivided attention to details inspired me beyond possible imagination towards striving for the best.

Also, profound gratitude goes to all my lecturers for letting me drink from their well of knowledge. I cannot but specially recognise Mr. Meshach of history department, Dr. Omotuyi Sunday, Dr. Moshood Omotosho, Mr. Obamamoye, Mr. Kennedy, Mr. Olu Adekola, and Dr. Lara Akinyemi among others whose intellectual acumen shaped my orientation and discipline in International Relations.

I would also like to express my grateful thanks to Mr Lekan Agunbiade, Sister Fasanmi Kikelomo, Bro Leke Arilewola, Bro Olawuyi Faleye, Bro. Sunday Abiola, Mrs. Esan Folake for their unflinching support towards me during my stay on campus.

To my wonderful friends who I cannot mention all of their names but to mention just a few, Olajide Ogunniran, Temilolu Bamiwuye, Adewumi Dada, Fatunbi Oluwatobi, Gafar Omotoyosi, Victor Faleye, Victor Olaniyan, Ogboru Victor, Agbooloa Jeremiah, Akande Emmanuel, Ikpechai King, Loveland, Eniola Ojikutu, Bisola Mustapha, Tofunmi, Francis, Ukpe Ebenezer. And finally to Ashaolu Rose Feranmi, thank you for all the moral supports, much love I have for you. Thank you all and you will forever remain in my heart and memory.

ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

EFCC Economic and Financial Crime Commission

ICPC Independent Corrupt Practices and other related offence Commission

TI Transparency International

TICPI Transparency International’s Corruption Perception Index

UNGPAC United Nations Global Program Against Corruption

WBWGI World Bank’s Worldwide Governance Indicators

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY

In Nigeria, corruption is one of the many unresolved problems that have robbed the nation of development. It remains a long-term major political and economic challenge for Nigeria. According to Alabi and Fashagba1, Nigeria's search for enduring socio-economic, political and technological development as well as efficient and productive utilization of allocated have been undermined by pervasive corrupt practices in the polity.

One cannot talk about Nigeria and neglect the reality of corruption in the country, and this is why the administration of Olusegun Obasanjo (1999 and 2007) gained unprecedented global attention on account of its unenviable record of corruption, especially in the political circles of the country2. This is not to suggest that corruption in the country started with the Obasanjo administration in 1999, rather it is to emphasize how intensified corruption cases have been since the beginning of the Fourth Republic. The level of corruption in the country is very high, and its effects on the external image of the country is nothing closed to positive. The Nigerian state is a state dominated by the forces of corruption, especially the corrupt elites who has turned the resources of the Nigerian state into what is now popularly referred to as the “national cake” which they share as they like among themselves at the detriment of the masses, this further confirms the words of Ogbewere that corruption is a clog in the wheel of progress in Nigeria and has incessantly frustrated the realization of noble national goals, despite the enormous natural and human resources in Nigeria.3

The political elites ever since independence of the Nigerian state have not stopped to enrich their own personal pockets with the country’s luxuries while hiding under the façade of fighting corruption in their respective political offices.

This further explains why the Nigerian elites have so much interest in the political affairs of the state and in some way have turned it into a business venture rather than a serving avenue. The much reason Remi Chukwudi Okeke and Adeline Nnenna Idike4 made it known that indeed, in very simple and clear terms, the monumental enumerations indict the Nigerian elite in its generic connotations. It typifies the scenario of elites establishing an inverse relationship between the institutionalization of a state and its usefulness. Under the Nigerian setting, the elite that were suspects in such corruption cases would never be thoroughly investigated and are hardly ever convicted of any offences as seen through the Olusegun Obasanjo’s administration of 1999-2007. Whenever some feeble convictions would be orchestrated, the accused elites are under the orthodoxy subsequently released in plea-bargains. Some of the elites that are adjudged by government to have been convicted in error, are even granted state pardon. According to Action Aid Nigeria therefore, the politicization of corruption by the government, in which people who have been indicted and or convicted of corruption, are given state pardon for reasons of political expediency, as well as their rehabilitation by the government, weakens the fight against corruption5. Furthermore, the shielding of public officials (the political elite) from facing investigation against corruption has also not helped matters and there is a lack of political will at the highest levels of government to reduce corruption in the country.6

Nigeria’s external image however has been affected from these corrupt practices on the part of the Nation’s elites since 1999. The perspective with which the international community view the Nigerian state changes every time there occurs a change of political power. This is to say that every time there have been change of power, there have seemed to be a higher record of corruption within the elites of the country which further affects the perspective from which the Nigeria’s neighbors view the whole country and its citizens at large.

The external perception of Nigeria before the return of democracy in 1999 was quite negative. The major cause of this was the long period of military rule which not only dismantled democratic institutions, but made Nigeria a pariah State as a result of corruption and draconian policies7, a major example of the late Gen. Sani Abacha who defied every law and went against every plead of the international community when he terminated the life of Ken Saro Wiwa and other Ogoni activists. Even though the image of Nigeria as a pariah state was redeemed through the several diplomatic tours of Olusegun Obasanjo, corruption has since 1999 been a very great setback for the ideal external image of the Nigerian State.

It is against this background that this study examines corruption and Nigeria’s external image, 1999-2007.

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

The phenomenon of corruption has had its root tooted in Nigeria even before the political independence. This trend however continued even after the independence and even till the present dispensation referred to as the fourth republic which commenced on May 29th 1999.

The period between 1999-2007 which marked the beginning of the fourth republic like every other republics (first, second and third) so far has been characterized by gross misappropriation of public funds by the country’s elites, embezzlements, money laundering, falsification of documents, bribery among many other ugly occurrence of corrupt practices in the country despite the efforts of every regime to combat the stubborn menace since 1999 when Nigeria entered the fourth republic.

And despite Nigeria’s efforts and selfless contributions to the world peace and harmony, this singular factor (corruption) among many others has negatively shaped the external image of the country far and wide in the international community, thereby making other countries of the world to have less trust in the individual citizens of the country and at large Nigeria itself.

Corruption has not only negatively affected the development of Nigeria as a state but has also greatly influenced its external image most especially during the political and democratic administration of Olusegun Obasanjo even despite his administration’s efforts to try and restore the good image of the country in the international community and also fight corruption.

Finally, scholars of International Relations and Political Science have over the years written on the menace of corruption in Nigeria and studies have been conducted on how much corruption has affected the country. However, not much has been done in the aspect of analyzing how corruption has affected the Nigeria’s external image from 1999 to 2007. Hence the problem this study seeks to solve.

Therefore, the forgoing forms the backdrop against which the study examines corruption and Nigeria’s external image, 1999-2007.

1.3 Research Questions

This study will be guided by the following research questions:

a) To what extent did corruption shape Nigeria’s external image between 1999 and 2007?
b) What is the nature of corruption in Nigeria between 1999 and 2007?
c) In what way(s) did the administration tackle the scourge?

1.4 Research Objective

The objectives of the study are to:

a) establish how corruption shaped Nigeria’s external image between 1999 and 20007.
b) examine the nature of corruption in Nigeria between 1999 and 2007
c) assess the ways in which the administration tackled the scourge

1.5 Research Assumptions

The study will be based on the following assumptions:

a) The Obasanjo’s administration of 1999-2007 witnessed more cases of corruption
b) Corruption influenced Nigeria’s external image between 1999 and 2007

1.6 Significance of the Study

The importance of this work lies in the fact that corruption and the reputation of Nigeria in the external community has become a topical issue among scholars of International Relations and Social Sciences at large. It also seeks to enrich the existing body of knowledge, provoke further discussions and raise more public awareness on the danger of corruption, especially how it has shaped the country’s external image between 1999 and 2007. Lastly, while many earlier studies had dealt with issues such as corruption and development of Nigeria in the fourth republic, impact of corruption on the Nigeria economy in the fourth republic, this study goes deeper to explore how much corruption has affected Nigeria’s external image from 1999 to 2007. It will also provide scholars and researchers with reference materials for further research work on the subject matter.

1.7 Limitation of the Study

The major limitation faced during the course of carrying out this study was the non-availability of primary sources of information due to lack of funds to travel far and wide seeking firsthand information on the subject matter. Time factor was also a major limitation. But despite these limitations, the researcher extensively made use of the secondary sources of information to complement the non-availability of the primary source. The internet was effectively utilized. Thus these limitations did not adversely affect the reliability and validity of this study.

1.9 Contribution to knowledge

This study is expected to advance research on corruption and Nigeria’s external image by further addressing the implication of corruption on Nigeria’s external image between 1999 and 2007.

1.10 Organization of the Study

This study is divided into five chapters. Chapter One contains the background to the study, statement of the problem, research questions, research objectives, research assumptions, significance of the study, limitations of the study, research methodology, and contribution to knowledge. Chapter Two deals with the review of literature and theoretical perspective. In chapter three, the study conceptualizes corruption and external image. The Fourth Chapter comprehensively examines corruption and Nigeria’s external image, 1999-2007, while the final chapter deals with summary, findings, and conclusion.

CHAPTER TWO: FRAMEWORK FOR ANALYSIS

2.1 Introduction

This chapter is divided into three sections. The first section is the review of literature. The second section situates the study within an appropriate theoretical perspectives. And the last section is about the research methodology.

2.2 Review of Literature

The literature on corruption, Nigeria in the fourth republic, and Nigeria’s external image are enormous but in this study, the review of literature shall be based on the literatures that have been written so far on corruption with relation to Nigeria’s external image in the fourth republic.

To Mercy8, despite the long years of independence, Nigeria is still battling with the problem of good governance. The leadership in the country has been characterized by lack of vision, political bickering and above all, the leaders have been enmeshed in gross corruption, which has become a great threat to the nation’s survival. She further posits that corruption is at the core of the crisis in issues such as governance and legitimacy, the establishment of a sustainable democratic order, rule of law, national development and the welfare of the citizens. However, her study failed to address the concept of corruption as of relation to Nigeria’s external image, 1999-2007.

For Usman Mohammed9, corruption connotes any behavior that deviates from an established norm with regards to public trust. It also means theft of public trust whether the person concerned is elected, selected, nominated or appointed and it does not matter whether the person affected holds office or not since anybody can be corrupt. Usman argues about corruption by giving instances where cases of corruption have emerged in the fourth republic, according to him, all the three arms of government and other state institutions are immersed in corruption. In his words corruption created serious setback in the National Assembly in the Fourth Republic10, this and more examples of manifestation of corruption in the Nigeria’s fourth republic he cited. Usman, even though discussed at length corruption in Nigeria in the Fourth republic, he however failed to address corruption and Nigeria’s external image, 1999-2007.

Ishaka Dele11 posits that corruption is a major problem limiting public bureaucracies in Nigeria. According to him, corrupt practices occur in nearly all ministries, departments, and agencies where virtually all members of the upper and lower levels of the bureaucracy are involved. Graft and corruption include bribery, extortion, and nepotism which are characterized by subordination of public interests to private aims and violations of the norms of duty and welfare, accompanied by secrecy, betrayal, deception and callous disregard for any consequences suffered by the public. He continues by noting that corruption occurs in many forms and it has contributed immensely to the poverty and misery of a large segment of the Nigerian population. Ishaka’s argument was based on the manifestation of corruption in the Nigerian Civil Service and Judicial System in the Fourth Republic, however, he failed to address how corruption has affected the Nigeria’s external image in the fourth republic.

Afolabi and Agunyai12 while addressing corruption in their paper titled “Governance Crisis in Nigeria’s Fourth Republic an Exploration of the Roles of Politicians and Their Cronies” argue that corruption in Nigeria, whichever way one looks at it is further amplified and encouraged by greed and materialism, cultural and moral decay, poor law enforcement regarding the prosecution of corrupt persons, and the lack of political will to punish corrupt persons or selective justice in the handling of corruption cases. All of these can be grouped under the rubric of the absence of sanctions for deviant and unlawful actions. While they argued about the manifestation of corruption in the fourth republic in Nigeria, they did not address corruption and Nigeria’s external image, 1999-2007.

In the words of Oladayo Nathaniel Awojobi13, the Fourth Republic commenced with the handover of power by the military administration to a democratic elected civilian government on May 29, 1999. The return of democratic governance was greeted with widespread jubilation. However, fifteen years of uninterrupted democracy, the country has witnessed a resurgence of corruption which has undermined national development in Nigeria. According to him, The worrisome trend in the magnitude of financial corruption by politicians prompted the Obasanjo government to introduce two anti-corruption agencies, the Economic and Financial Crime Commission (EFCC) and the Independent Corrupt Practices Commission (ICPC). The Fourth Republic has not been exempted from widespread corruption despite the two anti-corruption agencies that were created by the Obasanjo administration. He concludes by affirming that corruption hinders development and economic growth and it also increases poverty. However, despite Oladayo’s emphasis on how corruption has affected the underdevelopment of Nigeria in the Fourth Republic, he did not address corruption and Nigeria’s external image, 1999-2007.

Abdulganiyu14 contends that one of the major and teething problems confronting the Nigerian state and militating against peace and justice is the monster called corruption. Corruption is widespread in Nigeria and manifests itself in virtually all aspects of national life, from the millions of scam e-mail messages sent each year by people claiming to be Nigerian officials seeking help with transferring large sums of money out of the country, to the police officers who routinely set up road blocks, sometimes every few hundred yards, to extract bribes of twenty naira. According to him, it is estimated that about N8 trillion of Nigeria’s common wealth derived mainly from its main source of revenue oil, has been frittered away by people in government in the past 13 years. This stupendous volume of unchecked stealing by public servants and political office holders has contributed significantly in impoverishing a larger percentage of the population. While he was examining the relationship between corruption and national development in Nigeria with special focus on Nigeria’s fourth republic, he did not totally to address corruption and Nigeria’s external image, 1999-2007.

Remi Chukwudi Okeke and Adeline Nnenna Idike15 on the other hand posit that indeed, in very simple and clear terms, the monumental enumerations indict the Nigerian elite in its generic connotations. It typifies the scenario of elites establishing an inverse relationship between the institutionalization of a state and its usefulness. Under the Nigerian setting, the elite that were suspects in such corruption cases would never be thoroughly investigated and are hardly ever convicted of any offences. Whenever some feeble convictions would be orchestrated, the accused elites are under the orthodoxy subsequently released in plea-bargains. Some of the elites that are adjudged by government to have been convicted in error, are even granted state pardon. They make it visible that the politicization of corruption by the government, in which people who have been indicted and or convicted of corruption, are given state pardon for reasons of political expediency, as well as their rehabilitation by the government, weakens the fight against corruption. Notwithstanding, despite their efforts in principally examining in their study the dialectics of the political economy and the trouble with Nigeria as well as analyzing how the political economy has constituted a specific segment of the trouble with the Nigerian postcolonial state especially among the elites, they however did not see corruption from the perspective of its impact on Nigeria’s External image between 1999 and 2007.

These scholars have provided useful insights into the issue of corruption in the Nigeria’s fourth republic. Many of these scholars have analyzed corruption and how it affects good governance in Nigeria, others have seen corruption from the angle of a causative agent of Nigeria’s underdevelopment in the fourth republic. However, despite the amount of literatures reviewed, it can be established that there exists few literatures that address corruption and Nigeria’s external image, 1999-2007. Thus, this is the gap to be filled by this study.

2.3 Theoretical Perspectives

This study adopts two different theories for proper analysis of the subject matter. The elite theory is employed to further emphasize the perspective from which this study will be discussing and analyzing corruption, on the other hand, the image theory is employed to explain the image content of the subject matter.

Elite theory is based on the assumption that elite behaviour has a causal relationship with general patterns of state–society relations.16 The concept of ‘elites’ is based on the notion that every society holds a ruling minority, a group that controls and disputes the most important power sources. Not only do elites dispute power (reaching different levels of conflict and violence), but new elites also enter the game through different mechanisms of elite recruitment.17 Thus it can be said that the core of elite theory relies in explaining elite behaviour, elite interaction, elite transformation and, ultimately, the connection between those instances and state outcomes.18

Elite theory is very much concerned with structures, especially authority structures. Elite theory also approaches the question of social development and modernization in both Western and non-Western contexts.19 According to the definition of elites, power comes from different sources, meaning that there are different types of elites emerging from different organizations and movements.20 This is to further argue that the concept of elite is not limited to the political sector only but other sectors in the human society, this simply means we have business elites, military elites, media elites, state administrative elites and religious elites among other sectors in the society. Also, elite researchers share the assumption that elites are key actors in shaping political and social outcomes of democratic states and even non-democratic states.

[...]


1 M.O Alabi, and J.Y Fashagba, “The legislative and anti-corruption crusade under the fourth republic of Nigeria: Constitutional imperatives and practical realities” (International Journal of Politics and Good Governance Quarter II, 1-38.)

2 In 1999, Nigeria was ranked the second most corrupt country in the world, by the Transparency International. (Available at http://www.gwdg.de/~uwvw/)

3 Bankole Ogbewere, “Anatomy of Corruption in the Nigerian Public Sector:Theoretical Perspectives and Some Empirical Explanations” ( https://www.researchgate.net/publication/279216610 ). Accessed on 07/01/2019.

4 Remi Chukwudi Okeke and Adeline Nnenna Idike, “The Dialectics of Political Economy and Elite Corruption in a Postcolonial State: A Nigerian Case Study” (Kuwait Chapter of Arabian Journal of Business and Management Review Vol. 5, No.7, March 2016)

5 ActionAidNigeria,“Corruption and Poverty in Nigeria”. Available at: www.actionaid.org/sites/files/actionaid/pc_report_content.pdf.

6 Remi Chukwudi Okeke, Adeline Nnenna Idike, “The Dialectics of Political Economy and Elite Corruption in a Postcolonial State: A Nigerian Case Study” (Kuwait Chapter of Arabian Journal of Business and Management Review Vol. 5, No.7, March 2016).

7 Anthony Egobueze, “Nigeria’s Image, Democracy and Foreign Policy, 1999-2007” (Asian Journal of Social Science Studies; Vol. 2, No. 4; 2017)

8 Mercy Odeh Adiza, “The effect of corruption on the good governance in Nigeria” (International Journal of Development and Sustainability. Volume 4 Number 3 (2015): 292-307)

9 Usman Mohammed, “Corruption In Nigeria: A Challenge To Sustainable Development In The Fourth Republic” (European Scientific Journal February 2013 edition vol.9, No.4)

10 Usman Mohammed, Op. Cit., p. 7

11 Ishaka Dele, “An Impact Assessment of Civil Service and Judicial Corruption in the Nigerian Fourth Republic” (Journal of Political Studies, Vol.2 No.2). p144-172

12 Olugbemiga, S. Afolabi and Samuel C. Agunyai, “Governance Crisis in Nigeria’s Fourth Republic an Exploration of the Roles of Politicians and Their Cronies” ( Taiwan Journal of Democracy , Volume 13, No. 2: 153-175)

13 Oladayo N. Awojobi , “ Political Corruption and Underdevelopment in Nigerian Fourth Republic ( International Journal of Innovation and Scientific Research, Vol. 11 No. 1 Oct. 2014) pp. 151-157

14 Mohammed Abdulganiyu, “Corruption and National Development in Nigeria's Fourth Republic: An Assessment” (IJMPAS Vol. 1, No. 1, Oct. 2014) p. 1

15 Remi Chukwudi Okeke, Adeline Nnenna Idike, “The Dialectics of Political Economy and Elite Corruption in a Postcolonial State: A Nigerian Case Study” (Kuwait Chapter of Arabian Journal of Business and Management Review Vol. 5, No.7, March 2016)

16 Matias López, “Elite theory” Interdisciplinary Network for Studies of Social Inequality (NIED), at the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Article available at sociopedia.isa doi: 10.1177/2056846013112

17 Loc. Cit.

18 Loc. Cit.

19 Loc. Cit

20 Matias López, “Elite theory” Interdisciplinary Network for Studies of Social Inequality (NIED), at the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Article available at sociopedia.isa doi: 10.1177/2056846013112

Excerpt out of 47 pages

Details

Title
Corruption and Nigeria's External Image, 1999-2007
Course
International Relations
Grade
3.0
Author
Year
2019
Pages
47
Catalog Number
V536791
ISBN (eBook)
9783346161284
ISBN (Book)
9783346161291
Language
English
Keywords
corruption, external, image, nigeria
Quote paper
Oluwasola Abiola (Author), 2019, Corruption and Nigeria's External Image, 1999-2007, Munich, GRIN Verlag, https://www.grin.com/document/536791

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