Problems and difficulties that religious traditions face when they address problems related to ecological issues

Introduction

Religious traditions and ecological issues have been the key features of human affairs and the leading issues in the contemporary society, attracting the attention of the global society. Therefore, it is the intention of this paper to discuss the problems and difficulties that religious traditions face when addressing problems related to ecological issues. In this essay will try to define the terms “religious traditions” and “ecological issues”. The paper will point out issues on general ecology, and current ecological crisis showing the areas of conflict between religion and ecology in view of Christianity and African traditional religion as examples of five major world religions for the purposes of trying to point out the key environmental challenges that it impossible for the two religions in addressing the crisis. The paper will summarize the challenges faced by religious tradition in combating ecological issues.

Defining Terms

Meaning of religious traditions,

To start with it worth pointing out that, from time immemorial religious traditions are based on issues of nature and earth in relation to the beliefs in the supernatural being “god” . This nature is perceived as a home of man. The natural environment where water bodies, forests mountains, grasslands and even rocky places forms the basis of human beings’ beliefs systems. On my own understanding, religious traditions are thought of divine presence and purpose in nature and the cosmos, through with environmental issues in which they have been shaped by human beliefs and culture. This symbolic expression of nature in myth, beliefs and ritual practices and the understanding of divine nature are displayed in traditional practices of people as they interact with their divine God the “earth” which forms the basis of religious expressions.

Also religious traditions are perceived as vehicles for cosmological stories, symbol systems, ritual practices, ethical norms, historical processes and institutional structures that transmit a view of the human as embedded in a world of meaning and responsibility. Having seen the above explanations of what encompasses religion and religious traditions, it is worth noting that religious traditions forms the connecting threads of humans with a divine or numinous presence called “god”.

On the basis of understanding more about religion based on this context, it is of vital to point out that, religions have acknowledged that simultaneously with ongoing seasonal and geological changes there is wholeness and a holiness in the earth. This evolving cycle of life and death is, in part, what has engaged religious systems seeking to integrate their intricate symbolic and ritual structures with life processes. Life, death, and rebirth in the natural world are frequently symbolized in religious traditions. This alignment of the passage of human life with natural systems constitutes a profound dynamic of religious energy expressed in cosmological myths, symbols, and rituals. Along with this alignment, religions have developed injunctions against overuse of land and species found in numerous scriptures. This will be discussed further under the topic of Christianity. This interweaving of cosmological religious thought and environmental issues are seen below in the definition of the term ecological issues.

Meaning of ecology and ecological issues.

According to Merriam Webster dictionary, the term ecology is defined as a science that deals with the relationships between groups of living things and their environments. Asoanya (2011) while defining the term ecology adds that ecology based on the old fashioned name Oecologie appeared around the late 1890’s derived from Greek prefix eco which means house or dwelling place. Therefore the term ecology has today become a household word. This notion signifies a study of man’s habitat in a broad sense the study of our home as well as the interactions between organisms and the physical environment.

In this context ecological issue refers to the totality or pattern of relations between organisms and their environment. For the sake of this paper, ecological issues tend locate human being within the horizon of environment. Therefore this term is used to denote the dynamic interaction of humans with nature. Drawing the concept ecological issues from the term religious ecology is used here to point toward a cultural awareness of kinship with and dependence on nature for the continuity of all life. Religious ecology provides a basis for exploring diverse cultural responses to the varied Earth processes. In addition, the study of religious ecology gives insight into how particular environments have influenced the development of cultures. Therefore, it is the intention of this paper to unearth the key examples of environmental issues that are posing religious challenges in addressing the ecological issues in today’s society which bring the awareness of the way religious traditions are affected by ecological issues. This awareness of the interdependence of life in religious ecology finds expression in the religious traditions as a sacred reality that is often recognized as a creative manifestation, a pervasive sustaining presence and a vital power in the natural world leading to the realization of inter-being. I wish to point out that for many religions, the natural world is understood as a source of teaching, guidance, visionary inspiration, revelation of power about the supernatural being who is the source of beliefs system. It is in this regard that the paper will discuss the Christianity and African traditional religion thereafter. But before addressing this issue, let look at the relationship between religion and ecology in general.

Ecological Crisis in general

Before addressing the problems and difficulties that religious traditions face when they address problems related to ecological issues, it is vital to understand the environmental or ecological crisis. According to Asoanya (2011), the ecological crisis is adopted as a necessary consequence of the so-called contemporary way of thinking, first by specialized scientists, then by desperate city dwellers who managed to retain some memories of the ‘good old days’. To me the crisis is based on the situation in which the nature is today. This degradation of the nature and the environment caused by uncontrolled exploitation of nature due to increased population, desertification, and deforestation has both caused havoc on our planet Earth. To me this is what I may refer to as the ecological crisis in the 21st century. This condition has resulted to climate changes, droughts and floods amidst other natural problems threatening human life on earth. For the purpose of this paper, the above mentioned issues are the crisis in which the religious traditions are trying to overcome. This dare challenge is one of the contemporary issue that religious traditions need to address for the betterment of humanity. The increase of pollution on a hazardous scale are the most alarming situation in some of the African countries as the citizens try to fight for their own survival. Even the wealthy countries such as Western and Europe are experiencing the impact as they try to manage the same. So to say, today the situation has become more serious than before. This crisis is therefore challenging to religious traditions due to the magnitudes of the issues as pointed below.

Ecological concepts of some key five world religions

Having the brief overview of the ecological crisis, it is of value to point out that, the respect for integrity, wholeness and harmony of the earth and its life is shared by the great religions. So religions are trying to see that human beings ought to regard the nature as the home of man through sustainability of the earth as a moral concern. This is supported by the 1986 conference of the interfaith held in Assisi, Italy. This brought together representatives from five of the world’s major religions to discuss religion and nature. In a statement of solidarity, the Assisi Declaration established a clear relationship between the Buddhist, Christian, Hindu, Jewish and Muslim beliefs and a call to environmental stewardship( Asoanya 2011:227). This call to take care of environmental shows clearly that there was an initial challenge which propelled this conference. It is the intention of this paper in later details here below shall choose to reflect on a few of religion of which Christianity will be drawn out of the above and I will purpose to pick African tradition religion that I get to know from my native continent.

The current situation of ecological crisis

To start with, it is vital to point out that our environment is constantly changing. It true that, religious traditions are undergoing through a revolutionary changes as they experience the environmental wave in the 21st century. However, as our environment changes, so does the need to become increasingly aware of the problems that surround it. With a massive influx of natural disasters, warming and cooling periods, different types of weather patterns and much more, people need to be aware of what types of environmental problems our planet is facing. I totally agree with Asoanya (2011) as further says that the late 20th century was a time for pessimism over the state of the planet and yet optimistic that the year 2000 onwards would bring consensus on the nature and solutions to negative global trends. This current global trend is the dilemma in which religious traditions finds themselves today. This will be discussed later in this paper based on Africans traditions religion and Christianity and their challenges in addressing ecological issues.

Ecological crisis such as population growth, land degradation, deforestation global warming has become an undisputed fact about our current livelihoods; our planet is warming up and we are definitely part of the problem. However, this is not the only environmental problems that religious traditions are having challenges on, there are many others posing similar challenges across the world. Humanity in the 21st century is facing a wealth of new and challenging environmental problems every day. Some of them are small and only affect a few ecosystems, but others are drastically changing the landscape of what we already know. For the purpose of this paper I will only summarize few of areas under which ecological crisis is manifested!

To start with is the current situation into which the Planet Earth is ; the planet is poised at the brink of a severe environmental crisis. Current environmental problems make us vulnerable to disasters and tragedies, now and in the future. We are in a state of planetary emergency, with environmental problems piling up high around us. This challenge is affecting both developed countries and more severely impacting African countries. To me the ecological concept of the natural world is built on theological aspect of creation, where the earth is the foundation of humanity. Biblically God created human being to take care the earth and subdue it. But the relationship between religion and environments seems to be deteriorating where environmental conservation on biblical principles are facing challenges due to issues such as pollution: Pollution of air, water and soil require millions of years to recoup. Industry and motor vehicle exhaust are the number one pollutants. Heavy metals, nitrates and plastic are toxins responsible for pollution. While water pollution is caused by oil spill, acid rain, urban runoff; air pollution is caused by various gases and toxins released by industries and factories and combustion of fossil fuels; soil pollution is majorly caused by industrial waste that deprives soil from essential nutrients.

The other challenge in the planet is global Warming: this ecological issue is impacting negatively on climate changes. Global warming is the result of human practices like emission of Greenhouse gases. Global warming leads to rising temperatures of the oceans and the earth’ surface causing melting of polar ice caps, rise in sea levels and also unnatural patterns of precipitation such as flash floods, excessive snow or desertification. The other crisis is seen as a result of overpopulation. Population of the planet is reaching unsustainable levels as it faces shortage of resources like water, fuel and food. Population explosion in less developed and developing countries is straining the already scarce resources. Intensive agriculture practiced to produce food damages the environment through use of chemical fertilizer, pesticides and insecticides. Overpopulation is one of the crucial current environmental problems.

Also we cannot forget the ecological crisis caused by depletion of natural resource; natural resource depletion is another crucial current environmental problems. Fossil fuel consumption results in emission of Greenhouse gases, which is responsible for global warming and climate change. Globally, people are taking efforts to shift to renewable sources of energy like solar, wind, biogas and geothermal energy. The cost of installing the infrastructure and maintaining these sources has plummeted in the recent years.

Waste disposal is the other issue due to what I may call over consumption of resources and creation of plastics which are creating a global crisis in the surrounding environment. For example in the developing countries, we may witness notorious aspect where the production of excessive amount of waste or garbage which eventually get to be dumped into the oceans and sea waters. All these wastes together with nuclear waste disposal are tremendous becoming health hazards associated with air pollution within the physical environment. To my own understanding, the waste disposal is one of urgent current environmental problem affecting majority of African countries and the Asian countries.

Within the planet earth, the deforestation is the major ecological challenge because forests are natural basins of carbon dioxide and produce fresh oxygen as well as helps in regulating temperature and rainfall. These processes of clearing of green covers and making the land available for residential, industrial or commercial use purposes affect the ecosystem immensely enhance interfering with the ecological balance.

We cannot avoid mentioning the urban mass movement: Urban sprawl refers to migration of population from high density urban areas to low density rural areas which results in spreading of city over more and more rural land. Urban sprawl results in land degradation, increased traffic, environmental issues and health issues. Majority of cities are experiencing this situation, where the ever growing demand of land displaces natural environment consisting of flora and fauna. This situation which needs to be re[laced instead it takes a different direction all together. In reference to this current environmental problems, they tend to pose a lot of risk to health of humans, and animals. Dirty water is the biggest health risk of the world and poses threat to the quality of life and public health. Run-off to rivers carries along toxins, chemicals and disease carrying organisms. Pollutants cause respiratory disease like Asthma and cardiac-vascular problems. High temperatures encourage the spread of infectious diseases like plengue.

Due to technological advancement, we have the ecological crisis based on genetic engineering:; Genetic modification of food using biotechnology is called genetic engineering is one of the modification of food resulting to an increased toxins and diseases which are affecting our genetic makeup. Genetically modified crops can cause serious environmental problems as an engineered gene may prove toxic to wildlife. Another drawback is that increased use of toxins to make insect resistant plant can cause resultant organisms to become resistant to antibiotics. The above ecological issues will form my basis of this paper as I try to discuss the challenges religious traditions are facing in regards to the above.

To me having seen the above samples of ecological issues, it is very essential and very appropriate that a theology of environment based on religious traditions should first try to deal with the above challenges towards saving the earth from major environmental issues. If ignored today, these ill effects are sure to curb human existence in the near future. One of the best ways is to deal with it religiously, but the problem is that, our current planet earth has a natural environment, known as ‘Ecosystem’ which includes all humans, plant life, mountains, glaciers, atmosphere, rocks, galaxy, massive oceans and seas. Which also includes natural resources such as water, electric charge, fire, magnetism, air and climate requires religious traditions remedy. But religious traditions are facing challenges in the contemporary society as I will discuss them later based on African traditional religion and from Christianity perspective.

Areas of conflict between religious traditions and ecology

The sub topic discussed here, will briefly asses the “conflict” between religious tradition and ecology. The discussion will pay special reference to two religious traditions. For this case, Christianity and African tradition religions will form the basis of the discussion so as to point out the difficulties that religious traditions seem to encounter when dealing with ecological issues.

The areas of conflicts between religious traditions and ecology

According to Asoanya (2011), the influence of people’s views of nature has been inconsistent. This is due to teachings and attitudes based on religious beliefs and practices in relation to the nature. Lynn White Jr. an American specialist in mediaeval technology, pioneered the idea in the 1970s that Christianity was the world’s most anthropocentric religion and is today to be blamed for the ecological crisis. All of this is attributed to the influence of Judeo-Christian conceptions of creation . For this reason Christianity bears a huge burden of guilt for environmental deterioration( White 1967:1203).

In having this in mind, I wish to point out that the crisis of ecology goes back the Christian attitude to nature. So the area of teachings that it is in God’s will that man exploit nature for his proper end has contributed to our present predicament which makes its difficult for religious tradition to conflict with ecological issues. The other area of conflict between the two is man’s understanding of the relationship between self and cosmos. In conclusion, the issue of more science and more technology makes religion to find herself at loggerhead with ecology. Further discussion is articulated below in the relationship of the two areas of conflicts.

The relationship between religion and ecology

It is of vital to point out that, it is becoming increasingly difficult to separate religion and environment. This is because, the ongoing ecological crisis keep raising important questions for traditional theological issues that forms part of this paper! Therefore, before discussing the challenges faced by religious traditions based on African traditional religion and Christianity, it is of vital to briefly examine the relationship between religion and ecology which shall help in establishing the foundation of the discussion. The intersection of religion and ecology opens up for further investigation the broad interactions of humans as individuals and as communities with the natural world and the universe at large. According to Berry (2006), while quoting John Paul II, pointed out that “the earth was made for man, and not man for the earth” . To this concept human being religiously are pictured as trustees of the earth. It underscores the many ways that humans locate themselves by means of religious cosmologies within a universe of meaning and mystery. It explores the varieties of human flourishing in relation to nature, whether those interactions reflect reciprocity or respect, domination or manipulation, celebration or submission. It suggests as well that human interaction with the sacred often occurs in and through nature and the larger cosmos.

Therefore nature is seen in this light as a revelatory context for orienting humans to abiding religious questions regarding the cosmological origins of the universe, the meaning of the emergence of life, and the responsible role of humans in these life processes. Religions thus situate humans in relation to both the natural and human worlds with regard to meaning and responsibility that human beings are supposed to deal with. This may be a limiting or liberating experience. For example, religious ideas regarding nature may have deep associations with social beliefs and practices that are seen as unchanging ideals authorizing hegemonic ideologies. At the same time, religions may become a means for experiencing a sustaining creative force in the natural and human worlds and beyond. For some traditions this is a creator deity, for others it is a numinous presence in nature, and for others it is the source of flourishing life.

While discussing the issue of humanity in nature, Berry (2006) commented that Homo sapiens can be taken as myriad creatures in relation to human beings and the natural world. This is taking human being as a mere animal which is not true. Therefore, human beings are treated above the nature and this breaks the relationship. It is at this point that we see both biblical and historical analysis necessitates the position and the roots of our ecological crisis. This experience of a creative force gives rise to a human desire to enter into transformative processes that link self, society, and cosmos. The term anthropocosmic refers to the linkage in which the microcosm of the individual is connected to the larger human community and to the macrocosm of the universe itself. The anthropocosmic impulse is for rationality, intimacy, and communion with this numinous reality. Individual and communal transformations are expressed through rituals and ceremonies that celebrate natural seasonal cycles as well as various cultural rites of passage. Religions link humanity to the rhythms of nature through the use of symbols and rituals that help to establish moral relationships and patterns for social exchange. This shows that there is a strong link between religion and ecology. With this relationship in mind about ecology and religious traditions, it is worth noting that religion and ecology is still defining its scope and limitations base on different historical contexts in which religious traditions evolve by comparison to current environmental problems which forms the basis of this paper. Religious traditions are key aspects which environmental policy and ethics can be resolved if right mechanisms are observed. For example the issue of stewardship which is the key foundation of some religious practices are the basis in which religion and ecology are seen offering that the some intellectual energy, symbolic power, moral persuasion within their institutional structures. This has not been enough and thus why there are many challenges encountered when religious traditions are trying to address the issues of ecology in the 21st century.

Christianity as a religion (religious traditions)

Having seen the relationship between religion and ecology, it is of vital to understand religious traditions based on Christian perspective. According to Asoanya (2011), Christians have been accused of discarding totally on the basis of their traditional attitudes towards caring the environment. This is because Christians traditions has been identified being ambiguous and ambivalent with regard to the natural world. This is what might have caused the challenges faced by Christianity as a religion in addressing ecological issues. It is worth pointing out that Christian’s tradition is fraught with a mix of negative and positive motifs: disdain for the body, the earth, and the matter and desire for pure transcendence and spiritualization; incarnational , resurrection, eschatological thoughts that incorporate flesh and spirit, creation and cosmic destiny. Therefore, based on the ambiguity of biblical faith. The aspect of earth images and metaphors which inspires people’s faith is not in accordance with the natural law of the environment. This issue is the key challenge that the church attitudes towards environment is still declining in the contemporary society. I tend to believe that there must have been negative attitudes, which may have caused Christians to neglect their stewardship.

One of the key difficult faced by religion in addressing ecological issues on the foundation of Christianity is, the wrong and foundational teachings concerning the environment that were not given adequate attention in early times. These are some of the philosophical religious currents concerning the imperfection of the world, the body and the nature. This is one of the key stumbling blocks in addressing the ecological issues.

According to Christians traditional arguments, the bible is viewed has one of the tool that has helped towards nurturing the exploitation of nature. This can be seen from the argument by Lynn White (1967) that the bible emphasize the idea of God having planned creation to have been a foundation into which human being would benefit and use it for the purposes of exploitation of the nature. "Explicitly This places human being into the receiving end to benefit and rule the creation. Therefore, religious traditions are at the cross road towards addressing ecological challenges because no item in the physical creation has any purpose towards saving humanity. For White, Christianity accepted this biblical view of creation, fostering the attitude that human beings transcend nature and may exploit it. He argues that this attitude has shaped the development of modern Western science and technology, which have posed threats to our environment. It is at this point that Christianity can be viewed bearing many challenges towards addressing challenges associated with ecological crisis.

The other challenge that religious traditional, in particular, Christianity may face is the interpretation of the bible. It is worth noting that biblical interpretations in regard to our environmental issues, has raised hitches which in turn have prompted scholars to analyze carefully the biblical view of nature. In contrast to common assumptions, they are discovering that the Bible contains insights that can help form the basis of a sound environmental ethic. Although interpretations of particular passages may vary, they indicate that the Bible affirms the goodness and intrinsic value of all living things; it points out commonalities between human beings and other living things; and it contains the mandate that we treat the natural world with care and respect. Such insights provide powerful grounds for environmental responsibility. This can be seen from the chapters of Genesis in Old Testament as follows.

For example looking Genesis 1-11 contains several fundamental ideas about the natural world and our place in it. For instance, the initial verses of Genesis clearly state that God is the source of all life and that creation is good. Besides this, the creation of Adam from "the dust of the ground" (Genesis 2:7) highlights the connection between human beings and the earth because adam, the word for "human being," is a play on adamah, the word for "ground" or "earth." The story of Noah and the flood illustrates God's concern for all creatures because it states that God made the covenant not just with human beings but with "every living thing" and that God desires all creatures to "be fruitful and multiply." The ideas that God is the source of all life, that creation is good, that human beings are connected to the earth, and that God is concerned for all creatures strongly suggest that we are to value and respect the earth and its many forms of life.

Religious traditions are seen in the view of Christianity, that both attitudes and man’s relation to nature is affecting the ecology. So there are many implications on the challenges of religious beliefs and practices that are affecting the natural world. If the implication were true that Christianity lies at the roots of the modern environmental dilemma, one might expect that those regions of the world where Christians are relatively few might enjoy a better track record of environmental conservation. I which to summarize this part by an observation made by Asoanya that serious environmental problems are reported from areas where Islam, Buddhism, Atheism, and other religions dominate (Asoanya 2011:141).

African Traditional religious perspective on ecology

As mentioned above, I wish to present this religion as tribal religion full of religious beliefs and practices based on African concept of environment. It is worth noting that in African religions, just like other indigenous or tribal religions, respect for the integrity, dignity and sanctity of all nature is the main hold. This is where man remains the center of the human being in their own way. The human being becomes the subject to variety of spiritual forces. The forces here inhabit and permeate the farm land and the grazing field. The water and animals are part of the surrounding forming the community.

In African context, the issues of beliefs tied to myths “mythology” like the bible are the foundation of the creation and the supernatural being the creator. This is where the environment is viewed in the mirror of the creator and called the “mother”. This “mother” the environment requires to be protected as she is the every source of life. Gradually things have changed as a result of increase of human being in terms population causing a great harm and violence against environment. Diseases, lack of rainfull, drying of water wells due to destruction of water catchment areas, poverty has hit the continent in a big way. It is in this respect ecosystem which is the bedrock of ecological issues is facing great challenge today. African religious beliefs were very much attached to the nature. But today the biggest challenge in the 21st century on the environmental crisis is in Africa. This is where religious groups are advocating to save African continent from famine and diseases. Therefore the challenge was created due to lack of stewardship to this “mother” the land of African people. Religious traditions were outweighed by the ignorance and lack of knowledge on the important of conserving the environment. According to Berry(2006), stewardship originates from a human relationship, which has now, consciously at least been condemned. Even though Berry had no idea about African original beliefs that went on fading with time, this concept is very much applicable where stewardship is perceived as slavery.

Religious traditions of the African people here created a great threat towards addressing ecological situation in African continent. The issues I presented earlier in this paper that are currently affecting the world concerning ecological crisis are very much evident in the contemporary society.

Religious traditions are being affected by both theological problems and political implications of stewardship in addressing ecological issues.

Conclusion

In conclusion, this essay has sought to discuss the challenges faced by religious tradition in addressing ecological issues. Based on the above discussion in view of the current ecological crisis, it is worth noting that religious traditions have a common denominator on the difficulties and challenges in which religious groups finds themselves on matters of dealing with ecological issues. This is very evident by the growing threat to the natural order that we face today. According to Berry (2006), the world Council of Churches met at Vancouver in 1983 in where the issue of “the integrity of creation” was added to Justice and peace on matters of environment. The whole message was the caring attitude towards the nature. This was an awaking call on stewardship that was missing among the religious groups. The challenge faced by religious traditions as was seen earlier is the attitude on matters of environmental concept.

The other difficult is where religious tradition perceived that nature is the enemy. Christians have deplorable view of nature. This is also pointed out by Berry while quoting Lynn White(1967). Professor White’s article makes it very clear on the concept of Biblical aspect of man’s dominion over the earth. So the challenge of handling the ecological crisis is based on the principle concept of man’s attitude concerning the planet earth.

It is at this point that Berry (2006),when addressing ecological implications on stewardship, noted that, humanity evolved within the natural world. He contends that human beings are the dominant species in the plant earth. But same human being according to me is the stabling block towards addressing ecological issues. This is as a result of religious attitudes and ignorance towards embracing the mandate of right stewardship. I wish to point out that having seen the relationship between religious traditions and ecology, the current position of ecological crisis and the destruction witnessed on the planet earth in view of Christianity and African tradition religious beliefs, ecological crisis posed on the planet are the crossroad. This calls for an immediate awakening of religious traditions to embrace the concept of stewardship

The other challenge faced by religious traditions is what I may call a moral implication. The humanity under religious sphere is lack of respect for life. I mentioned earlier matters of environmental pollution on both living things and non-living things. Religious traditions are unable to differentiate the matters of science and religious beliefs that help her adherence to take care of the environment.

Also religious beliefs and traditions are at the crossroad in the modern world of secularization. This makes it difficult for specifics traditions to be put into practice when addressing ecological issues in the 21st century. Again the issue of urban mass movement and population increase has been the major challenge which is full of religious phenomenon: this phenomenon is attributing to migration of people to urban enhance causing waste disposal a challenge to the surrounding, creating a global crisis to environment. The aspect becomes a social norm in the society with diversity and multi-religious ideology that cannot respect ecological principles.

To this effect therefore, I have indicated clearly the difficulties of religious traditions in addressing the ecological issues. I have explored a spectrum of the current ecological and environmental crisis affecting the world today showing the relationship of religion and ecological issues as well as the areas of conflicts between the two. In the discussion above it have been pointed out that humanity attitude based on beliefs and practices has impacted strongly on the way religious beliefs are handling the ecological issues. This is in the interpretation of the bible, the issues of moral responsibility and the stewardship.

Refrences

Berry,R.J.(Ed) (2006). Environmental Stewardship: Critical perspective, past and present. London:T&T Clark Int.

Asoanya, A.(2011). The ecological Crisis in Africa as a Challenge to lating Cultural and Sustainable Development;a thelogical approach. New York.Peter Lang